Plot Summary Essay Example for Free

Plot Summary Essay The play is set in the Dublin slums or tenements in the years of the Iris Civil War 1922 and 1923. The whole play centers on the Boyle family. Juno Boyle is married to Boyle who calls himself Captain Boyle. Boyle is a useless and irresponsible drunkard who shuns the reality of work at every stage in the play, and spends his time in the pub drinking with his friend Joxer Daly. The Boyles have two children Johnny and Mary. Johnny is a sickly individual who has been involved in the Republican movement but he ended up betraying a comrade by the name of Tancred. Johnny spends his days locked up in the house fearful of his life. His mother Juno is a selfless character who is concerned all the time about other people. Juno’s daughter Mary is deeply concerned about appearances. She is a shallow character who seems to judge people and things from the outside. When we meet her at the beginning of the play, we learn she is on strike because of the dismissal of a young girl called Jenny Claffey. Yet we are told from Juno how Mary never had a good word to say about Jenny Claffey in her whole life. The family are told that they will inherit money from a distant relative who has died. Bentham is the solicitor who informs them of this fact. He begins to have a relationship with Mary and she becomes pregnant. Bentham shortly after this abandons her. The Boyles begin to borrow money and accumulate a great deal of debts. The legacy never materializes, and the Boyles are forced to return the borrowed goods. Johnny is dragged off to be shot for the betrayal of Tancred. Juno finally realizes that Boyle will never take on his responsibilities as father and breadwinner and so she leaves him and sets up home with Mary. Themes/Issues Poverty This theme dominates the play at every level. The whole play highlights the cruel irony that while many people were fighting for ideals and principles there were others who were suffering from the debilitating effects of the poverty. Because of the negative effects generated by poverty escapism assumes a major and dramatic element in the lives of characters. Mary’s tragic situation occurs because of poverty. When it becomes clear that the Boyles will not inherit any legacy, Bentham disappears forever abandoning Mary alone to have her baby. Jerry Devine standards of what are essential features in a husband are set out in terms of money. At one stage he tells Mary how the job is worth 3 50. Juno who is the only character rooted in the harsh practical everyday world of necessity realizes that money, hard work, and responsible social commitment are stronger and more realistic values in this world than principles and ideals. Her pragmatic stance on how principles won’t pay butchers is in striking contrast to the incessant evasion from reality inherent in all of the other characters. Religion The theme of Religion is also a dominant feature in the play. The play is set against a strong Catholic background. O Casey makes frequent use of images of Our Lady and the votive light to project an air of realism and authenticity in the play. There are also a variety of different religions, and attitudes expressed throughout the play. One of O Casey’s chief mottos in the play seems to show the co- existence of strong religious convictions, together with a sincere and humane commitment to one’s fellowman. Juno’s faith is sincere, authentic, and traditional. She believes on Johnny’s death that God can do nothing against the stupidity of men, that her husband should be praying novenas for a job, and that what Ireland needs is more piety. On the other hand, Bentham espouses a religion by the name of Theosophy. This is projected as vague and abstract and certainly seems to be compatible with his own shallow commitment to people. Reality and Fantasy The play dramatizes the conflict between the dream world and the world of reality and shows what happens when a character is stripped of his illusions and forced to face reality. Boyle the ‘poseur’ or Paycock struts throughout the world of the play on a false and imaginary sense of his own self- importance. His whole life and career consist in fabricating dreams of his gallant years as a captain fighting heroic feats and sailing the oceans of the world. The news of the legacy provides another outlet to Boyle’s habitual evasion of reality, he sees himself as a potential investor on the Stock Exchange. His whole life is a lie. His pains, which are invented for the sake of shirking and avoiding work, become real to him. His refuses to face up to the truth and reality about Bentham and the deception surrounding the news of the will. When reality invades at the conclusion of the play in the form of Mary’s pregnancy and the actual removal of his material possessions, Boyle is unable to cope. His final entrance dramatized in a drunken fragmentary soliloquy is tragic. His habitual escape into fantasy is pathetically expressed through his drunken pose – ‘ Commandant Kelly died†¦. in them arms†¦.. Tell me Volunteer Bullies says he that I died for Ireland’. Mary who represents the younger generation also falls victim to illusion. On her first appearance in the play, she is shown to be on strike for a principle. The oppressive and stifling atmosphere generated by the tenement life forces her to seek escape through Bentham. For her he represents another way of life and values outside the restricting and debilitating atmosphere within the two- roomed tenement. She falls victim to the subtle deception of Bentham’ middle-class gentility. She is blinded by external appearances and ends up a tragic victim of Bentham’s hypocrisy and selfishness At the conclusion of the play, she is forced to return to the reality of the slum life with Juno in spite of all her attempts to escape through learning and books. Answer Juno and the Paycock is a play that was written by Sean OCasey. It is one of the most often performed and highly regarded plays in Ireland. Juno and the Paycock was first staged at the Abbey Theatre, Dublin in 1924. Juno and the Paycock: Tragoi-comedy. Tragi-comedy is a kind of writing in which comedy is hovering on the brinks of tragedy. OCasey’s â€Å"Juno and the Paycock† is a tragi-comedy although, on the whole, it is a serious and somber play having much destruction and violence. But there are a number of comic elements in the play which would not fit into the pattern of a tragedy. On the other hand, as the comic elements do not outweigh the tragic ones, it would be inappropriate to label the play as a comedy. It means there is a co-existence in the play of tragic and comic elements and so, the best course is to treat it as a tragi-comedy. Trade Union. JUNO AND THE PAYCOCK Sean O Casey ACT 1 (in a labour family house, not very well furnished) Johnny and Mary Boyle are siblings and members of a Trade Union. Mary is 22 and Johnny is her younger brother. He was injured at the hip by a bullet and at the arm by a bomb: he is an activist. One of Mary’s friend, Jennie Claffey has been fired so Mary wants to demonstrate (Union Trade). Mrs Boyle doesn’t support those behaviours on the part of her Children. Mrs Tancred son was killed during a an armed fight. The Boyle family is poor and Mrs Boyle borrows money. She doesn’t want her husband to come at home with his friend, Joxer, and to spoil all the coal and the food. Johnny is crippled and relies much on others. Jerry Devine has found a Job for the Captain (Juno’s Husband), but the latter pretends the pain is his legs prevents him from working. Jerry Devine is in Love with Mary, but she hangs out with another guy. Jerry Devine saw them together. Jerry devine is a very polite and a very correct guy. Juno makes Joxer go and goes to work. Then Joxer comes again. He is much afraid of Juno. He and the Captain have a conversation. The captain doesn’t want to work. He doesn’t like clergymen. Then Joxer has a quick leave as Juno comes back with Mary and Mr Bentham (the other guy Mary sees). He is 25 and seems to be rich. He has great news for the captain. Benthan says Ellison of Santry, a relative of John Boyle the captain) is dead and he will receive half of his belongings. Then John Boyle get angry with Jox. Things now goes well between he and his wife though. ACT 2 (two days later + the pace is full of belongings and adornments of all sorts) Boyle is friend again with Jox and spend is money joyfully. As he is rich, he seem to have changed views about clergyman. Father Farell (the one proposing him the job in particular). Charles and Mary seem to appreciate each other much. Boyle and the former are having a conversation. As Bentham speaks about spirits Johnny sees the phantom of Robbie Tancred in the left room. The captain is sometimes called Jack. Mrs madigan (a woman to whom the captain owes a few pounds) comes in. They sing. Then Mrs Tancred is heard in the street, going to the burial of her son. Nugent (tailor + he talked with the captain about his job and the Father) comes and asks them to shut the gramophone down. They all go out except John, to see the burial procession. The mobilizer comes and asks John to take part in a meeting of the militia. ACT 3 (two months later+ same setting) Bentham hasn’t been seen for a month. He has given up on Mary. Mrs Boyle brings her to the doctor’s. The captain has borrowed much money to all his neighbours but it seems he won’t get it. Nugent, the tailor comes and takes back a suit he had made for Jack. Mrs Madigan, who wants to be repaid, comes and takes the gramophone for which the captain hasn’t paid yet. The captain and Joxer quarrel about the rumours and the girls come back from the doctror’s. Marry is pregnant, Bentham is the father. Bentham also misinterpreted the will and the Captain won’t have his share. People come to remove the furniture that hasn’t been paid for. Two irregulars (from the militia) take hold of Johnny (called Sean) to take him by force. He is accused of having killed Tancred. One hour later the house is completely empty. Johnny was killed. Two policemen come for Mrs Boyle to check up the corpse. The girls will live together and take care of the baby. Until Mary drops they will live at Juno’s sister. Joxer and Boyle come back completely drunk. Boyle says the whole world is in a state of crisis.

Henry James’ The Golden Bowl, The American Scene, and the New York Edition :: American Scene

Henry James’ The Golden Bowl, The American Scene, and the New York Edition In the letter he wrote to Scribner's in 1905 proposing that he "furnish" each volume of his forthcoming deluxe edition with a preface, Henry James portrayed his novels and stories as disenfranchised beings patiently awaiting a "chance" for their cause to be righted. James would be their advocate and the prefaces the texts with which he would demonstrate his novels' worth (367). In this paper I will argue that the writing of The Golden Bowl and The American Scene were essential precedents and complements to this project of self-vindication. Reading The Golden Bowl through its preface shows that beneath the narratives of familial and marital relations in the novel run stories of a writer's contention with a misapprehending audience--the same struggles out of which James spun creative autobiography and a theory of fiction in the prefaces to the New York Edition. Through his indirect critique of his readership in The Golden Bowl and the fierce challenges he delivered to his compatriots in The American Scene James laid essential groundwork for the lessons in reading and creative production he would later offer in the New York Edition. Paul Armstrong has argued that James's prefaces require the same "doubled reading" his novels require, that while the reader is absorbing James's account of his writing experience and his theory of writing, the reader is also responding to James as a centering consciousness whose "interpretive attitudes . . . are as much on display and as much an object for the reader's scrutiny as the impressions of a Lambert Strether or a Maggie Verver" (128). As comparable centering consciousnesses, James the preface-writer and his heroine Maggie Verver make common assertions. Both figures demonstrate the power of the creative deed. Paralleling James's affirmations about "doing" in the preface to The Golden Bowl is Maggie's discovery in the novel of her own brilliant capacity for action. After the assignation of the Prince with Charlotte in Gloucester, Maggie begins "to doubt of her wonderful little judgement of her wonderful little world" (307). She begins to "put" things both to herself and the people around her. She contrives gestures to effect a change in her "practically unattackable" situation. Henry James’ The Golden Bowl, The American Scene, and the New York Edition :: American Scene Henry James’ The Golden Bowl, The American Scene, and the New York Edition In the letter he wrote to Scribner's in 1905 proposing that he "furnish" each volume of his forthcoming deluxe edition with a preface, Henry James portrayed his novels and stories as disenfranchised beings patiently awaiting a "chance" for their cause to be righted. James would be their advocate and the prefaces the texts with which he would demonstrate his novels' worth (367). In this paper I will argue that the writing of The Golden Bowl and The American Scene were essential precedents and complements to this project of self-vindication. Reading The Golden Bowl through its preface shows that beneath the narratives of familial and marital relations in the novel run stories of a writer's contention with a misapprehending audience--the same struggles out of which James spun creative autobiography and a theory of fiction in the prefaces to the New York Edition. Through his indirect critique of his readership in The Golden Bowl and the fierce challenges he delivered to his compatriots in The American Scene James laid essential groundwork for the lessons in reading and creative production he would later offer in the New York Edition. Paul Armstrong has argued that James's prefaces require the same "doubled reading" his novels require, that while the reader is absorbing James's account of his writing experience and his theory of writing, the reader is also responding to James as a centering consciousness whose "interpretive attitudes . . . are as much on display and as much an object for the reader's scrutiny as the impressions of a Lambert Strether or a Maggie Verver" (128). As comparable centering consciousnesses, James the preface-writer and his heroine Maggie Verver make common assertions. Both figures demonstrate the power of the creative deed. Paralleling James's affirmations about "doing" in the preface to The Golden Bowl is Maggie's discovery in the novel of her own brilliant capacity for action. After the assignation of the Prince with Charlotte in Gloucester, Maggie begins "to doubt of her wonderful little judgement of her wonderful little world" (307). She begins to "put" things both to herself and the people around her. She contrives gestures to effect a change in her "practically unattackable" situation.

Vegetarians vs. Meat-Eaters Rough Draft

Cassia Allen Mr. Gerleman Engl. 1301 18 June 2012 Vegetarian vs. Meat-eater Through personal experience I have witnessed the common misconception many people fall prey to: vegetarians are mal-nourished and unhealthy. This quick judgment comes from the knowledge that the human body needs protein to survive and our main source of protein comes from the meat of animals. Fortunately for vegetarians, this is not so. In fact, protein can be found in a variety of different foods, making life for a vegetarian not quite as difficult as one might think.Unlike a meat-eaters diet, by eating a vegetarian diet you can prevent health defects, gain important vitamins and maintain a level amount of energy throughout the day. Eating a vegetarian diet takes dedication but with the right knowledge of what will benefit your body and what will harm it, you can be rewarded with a number of positive aspects. Fruits and vegetables play a huge part in the prevention of health defects such as heart disease, di abetes and even cancer.But without knowing this, vegetarians can extremely warp the outcome of a vegetarian diet and intake more carbohydrates rather than vitamins from fruits and veggies. These vitamins are an absolute essential part of a vegetarian diet along with foods that will provide energy to the body such as leafy greens, nuts, beans and fresh produce. By eating these types of foods, vegetarians can have just as much or more energy in their day as a meat-eater would.Many meat-eaters in today’s society abuse the commendable aspects that meat can contain and gorge themselves in all of its fatty glory. Meat is commonly over-eaten and turned to fat in the body if not worked off through exercise. Because of nutrients such as amino acids, iron and protein; some meats can add to one’s defense system and help block harmful viruses from getting into the body. But this minimal amount of help that meat offers the immune system can easily be replaced by many other foods.Un fortunately the same cannot be said for the protein level meat contains. No vegetarian food can provide the same amount of protein that meat offers. Because of this, meat-eaters have a consistent amount of energy when doing every-day activities and usually do not tire easily. Looking past all the differences, both an omnivorous diet and a vegetarian diet have health benefits of their own but having a vegetarian diet means that you are acutely aware of these differences and strive for the benefits.

Relevance Of Hofstedes Model In Current Scenario - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3280 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Hofstedes model is well known as a significant standard to distinguish different cultures in the field of business. With the rise in globalization of businesses, many people are working with, or managing, individuals and groups from cultures other than their own. Due to many criticisms of Hofstedes cultural model, this paper has analysed, to an extent, the effectiveness of Hofstedes model in the current business scenario. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Relevance Of Hofstedes Model In Current Scenario" essay for you Create order The paper has critically evaluated the models five dimensions on the basis of two main aspects i.e. the biasness and the validity with respect to time. Firstly, this paper analyses the impact of subcultures within a national territory and how Hofstedes model ignores that aspect. The report has explained, with the help of examples, how within a country there are different subcultures which impacts peoples personality and behavior. The model can be said outdated since some countries are no more in existence and there are some countries that did not exist at the time of the survey. The number of respondents that were surveyed by Hofstede is also an issue as it wasnt in any particular pattern or balance. Moreover, Hofstede used a single company as a base of his survey for the cultures of the world. The report has put forward criticisms on Hofstedes model and has concluded that his model still might be useful to managers on a very basic level, depending on the purpose of usage, but it may not be of any use at all in the near future. Considering these problems, suggestions have been made on how culture could have been analyzed by Hofstede or how it can be studied for the future. Table of content Executive Summary Table of contents Table of figures 1 Introduction 1 2 HofstedeÂÂ ´s Methodology 2 3 Critical Analysis of HofstedeÂÂ ´s Model 3 3.1 National Culture vs. Sub-culture 3 3.2 Geographical Location 4 3.3 Language and Number of Respondents 6 3.4 Single Entity 7 3.5 Cultural Evolution 8 3.6 Validity of the Surveys 9 4 Conclusion 9 5 Recommendations 11 Appendix 12 Bibliography 16 Table of figures Table 1: Comparison between Australia and Indonesia in HofstedeÂÂ ´s model 4 Table 2: Working days lost in industrial disputes per 1000 employees 8 Relevance of Hofstedes Model in the Current Scenario In the beginning of our assignment, we want the reader to understand implications of cultures along with Hofstedes points and methodology. Following this, we will evaluate critically the arguments made by Hofstede and his research methodology. Finally, we will state our conclusion and some recommendations about future cultural research. Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often disaster. (Hofstede, no date; cited in Itim, 2009, a). 1. Introduction There is no universal definition of culture. According to Hornby (2009), cultures are customs and beliefs, art, way of life and social organization of a particular country and group. From the statement, we understand that there are several things that affect cultures. Culture plays an important role in understanding people traits. People from different regions have different ways of living; this includes business. Therefore, it is important to understand the traits of people from different cultures in order to make business more effective and efficient. A Dutch researcher, Geert Hofstede initially came up with a cultural model in which he continued to develop (Mead and Andrews, 2010). This model was attained by distributing questionnaires to IBM employees in 66 different countries. The survey was conducted in 1967 and 1973; and he came up with four main dimensions (McSweeney, 2002, a). Power Distance It is the extent to which people can accept and expect the unequal distri bution of power. Uncertainty Avoidance It is to measure how people from different countries can endure ambiguity and contingency. Individualism vs. Collectivism It is the degree whether people in a particular country are more likely to be associated with a group or more individualists. Masculinity vs. Femininity It is the classification of people residing in particular country as to whether they are more focused on success or on harmony and peace. But then later on Hofstede came up with a final dimension: Long term orientation vs. Short term orientation Not as commonly used as the earlier dimensions, it considers temporal orientation towards life (Mead and Andrew, 2010). This assignment will now critically evaluate whether Hofstedes model is dated and biased and to what extent it is of use to the contemporary business executives. 2. Hofstedes Methodology Hofstedes cultural model is widely used for cross cultural research by international companies and corporations (Jones, 2007). As mentioned above, Hofstede distributed 117,000 questionnaires to IBM employees from 66 different countries. Initially, the questionnaires were made in English but then due to translation problems, the questionnaires were subsequently translated into local languages. Hofstede involved only one company IBM- which he called HERMESÂÂ ´ as IBM was not comfortable with its identity being made public. The research was done on employees solely from sales and marketing departments of IBM. The reason why Hofstede chose IBM as the single company was because of homogeneous corporate and occupational culture (McSweeney, 2002, a). According to Hofstede IBM has a strong corporate culture and the purpose of his survey was to analyse the traits, characteristics, and behaviors of people from different countries (Hofstede, 2001). He basically relates a selection of so cietal characteristics (for example, GNP, economic growth, latitude of the capital city, population size) to each of the four indices. His main method of use was the stepwise regression. Finally he uses his ecological findings to predict individual behavior (Robinson, 1983). 3. Critical Analysis of Hofstedes Model Many researchers have argued on Hofstedes methodology and findings. In the following paragraphs some examples of criticisms will be evaluated. 3.1 National Culture vs. Sub-culture Hofstede argues that every national population shares common culture despite of acknowledging that it is not the only culture or totality of cultures. Culture is territorially unique (McSweeney, 2002, a). For example: India and China are very vast countries which have many subcultures depending on the geographical locations. Hofstede has taken these countries as a single entity, which means that every Indian and Chinese, regardless of which part of the country they come from, have similar cultures, which is not correct. He also considers Great Britain as a single entity, whilst it is actually comprised of different nations. Does this mean that people from England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have single national culture? Studies have shown that compared to these three countries, Wales has the most diverse population in terms of individuals born outside the country. (Drinkwater and Blackaby, 2004). This influences individuals personal traits. From these points, we can stat e that Hofstede is biased, as he considered the country as a single entity regardless of different regions within the country. To strengthen the above argument, OLeary and Levinson (1991, as cited in Baskerville, 2003) stated that culture cannot be equated with nations. For instance in Africa 98 different cultures exist in 48 countries, whereas Western Europe has 81 identified cultures in 32 countries. In North America, 147 native cultures are recognized. Wildavsky (1989, as cited in Baskerville, 2003) also mentioned that cultures are not countries and there are many different cultures within the same country. 3.2 Geographical Location As a result of globalization and advancement in technology, Hofstedes model is dated. Nowadays, people have become more mobile. Hofstede model fails to identify those people; for example: people who were born in Indonesia but spent most of their lives in Australia. This can be disastrous for international managers as people from Indonesia and Australia have different cultures and behaviors. According to the model, Australians are very individualist, masculine and have low power distance whereas Indonesians are very collectivist, feminine and have high power distance (refer table 1) (Brewster et. al., 2007). Reliance solely on Hofstedes model may misguide international managers in working with personnel of such mobile backgrounds. Table 1: Comparison between Australia and Indonesia in HofstedeÂÂ ´s model (as cited in Jones, 2007) Another example is Hitler who was born in Austria and moved to Germany as an adult. According to Hofstede, Austria has very low power distance and high on uncertainty avoidance (Brewster et. al., 2007). However, Hitler was very dominant person by nature and he believed in the idea of dictatorship (McSweeney, 2002, a). Hitlers personality was contrary to the Austrian culture. Another case where Hofstede has ignored this aspect is that people in Hong Kong and the majority of people in Singapore are Chinese, but Hofstede explains their power distances using different explanations. The higher power distance values for Hong Kong and Singapore are because of the fact that they were a part of the British colony. The British did not practice equality values between themselves and the colonised population (Yeh, 1988). The model is out-dated because it still has Yugoslavia, whereas in present world the country does not exist anymore. The country has been di vided into Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Slovenia, Kosovo, Croatia and Macedonia. Also, the survey was conducted when Germany was still split up into two different countries (Cahill, 2007). Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia have been ignored in Hofstedes cultural research and are still treated as a forecourt of Russia. Many publications consider them as a common block, not only because of their geographical proximity and location but also because they were all a part of Russia when the research was held. A very small number of scholars focus on cultural differences among former Soviet-Union states and/or CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) countries (Vadi and Meri, 2005 as cited in Huettinger, 2008). Latvia looks westwards to Sweden and Germany, to continue its traditional ties (Manning and Poljeva, 1999 as cited in Huettinger, 2008). Hofstede has noted that the national culture of a particular country is the dominant mental program, which is predominant (Romm and Hsu, 2003 as cit ed in Huettinger, 2008). Several studies have proven that nations are significant cultural institutions on their own (Smith and Peterson, 2005 as cited in Huettinger, 2008). Hofstede also defines culture as, the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one group or category of people from another (Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005 as cited in Huettinger, 2008). We can clearly see that Hofstedes model is dated regarding this aspect, and perhaps even biased, as he considers them as one culture whereas he might not have had anyone from Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia in his studies. The Chinese are very proud and loyal people. Their loyalties lie with their families and less so to non-family organizations. The Japanese, however, do not have any problems with shifting their loyalties from their family to their work place. Thus, even though both Chinese and Japanese have low individualism, the systems are very different. From a societal or the firms perspective, the Chinese are very individualistic. Which are in contrast to Hofstedes findings for Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore, where the majority of people living are also originally Chinese (Chen and Chieu, 1984 as cited in Yeh, 1988). Furthermore, even the meaning of the word household is quite different between Japan and China. Chinese people face problems when they have to show their loyalties to the company and their family at the same time, whereas this conflict does not exist in Japan. Hofstedes argument is that Mao Zedongs anti-individualistic or pro-collectivistic ethos is evidence of the deeply rooted Chinese tradition. This on the contrary was one of the reasons why MaoÂÂ ´s Cultural Revolution failed. The tradition of the family coming first is deeply rooted in the Chinese society (Yeh, 1988), where Hofstedes studies have not considered the Chinese majority countries having any ties with china. 3.3 Language and Number of Respondents Initially, there were problems in understanding the questionnaires as it was written in English. However, later the questionnaires were translated into the relevant local languages and redistributed, again to the same employees of the HERMES company to conduct the survey again. Differences in translation of language can be minimized but not completely eliminated, as some words cannot have the exact same meanings in the local language. For example: the word achievement is difficult to be translated, and was therefore avoided (Hofstede, 2001). He used 362 managers with different backgrounds from 30 different countries to respond to the questionnaires. Whilst the managers received and answered the questionnaires in their own native languages so as to avoid mistranslation in interpreting the data. The result was similar to the result of questionnaires written in English (Hofstede, 2001, 2002). However, the number of respondents representing a country is small. . The use of questionn aires had also been doubted. Hofstede used 117,000 questionnaires for 66 countries. A large number of respondents itself does not guarantee the validity of the result, as the average number of respondents he obtained per country is not statistically significant so as to be reflective of a whole country. Out of 66 countries only six countries have respondents more than 1000; others were less than 200. This numbers are too small to represent a country (McSweeney, 2002, a). According to McSweeney (2002, a), the survey covered 66 countries but Hofstede only used data obtained from 40 countries. But if we look at Hofstedes model, he has used 53 countries in the table (Brewster et. al., 2007). Therefore, should the data for the 13 countries mentioned in the model be questioned? 3.4 Single Entity The survey was conducted on a single company, IBM; and the data which he used for his analysis was based on responses from marketing plus sales executives. Hofstede argued that it was deliberate. Hofstede believes that by this, he will get data from people who has homogeneous corporate and occupational culture; therefore, the difference he gets was due to national culture. Based on Hofstedes argument, we can say that every German machinist has the same occupational culture with every Greek machinist; which might not be true. Hofstede also has ignored dissenting, multiple, and emergent cultures in organization which are plausible to occur due to local circumstances. The survey should have involved people with different backgrounds and different companies; as IBM only deals with the service industry. For example: tennis clubs, political parties, students, manufacturing companies should be considered. This is also pointed out by Tan and Chee (2005) as people are exposed to different h eritages, customs, religions and traditions which are deeply embedded within them (as cited in Huettinger, 2008). Hofstede did not differentiate these diverse groups. 3.5 Cultural Evolution Ten years after his first publication, Hofstede agreed that there are considerable differences in culture among different units within the same organization (as cited in McSweeney, 2002, a). This means that over the years, cultures evolve and there are differences in occupational culture within a company and its subsidiaries. Thus, Hofstedes research was biased, as only those from the marketing and sales department were surveyed. Table 2: Working days lost in industrial disputes per 1000 employees (annual averages) (McSweeney, 2002, b) The table shows that masculine countries have become more feminine and vice versa. The world is now converging due to globalization; individualism and collectivism orientation can co-exist in every individual depending on the situation. The situations will influence the orientation, for example: importance of the matter, urgency, etc. (Browaeys and Price, 2008). We can say that Hofstede model is outdated, as cultures do change over the years. Hofstedes model uses a quantitative method which, among other things, is characterized by its carefully selected sample consisting of a group of well-educated white middle class men working for the same company and sharing identical or similar occupations. The problem with this sample as a norm for national culture is that it misleads one to believe that Hofstede perceives of culture as equally-distributed among men and women. However, as has dedicated one of his five dimensions to gender and constructed his model on a bipolar distinction between masculinity and femininity, this is clearly not the case. On the contrary, his masculinity/femininity dimension (MAS) shows that he has a very clear and distinct understanding of the differences between masculinity and femininity, which he takes advantage of for his construction of national cultures. Hofstede argues that men, as a general rule, will be more achievement-oriented and women more care-oriented. Hofstedes assumption raises several questions; for example, for what reason(s) were women excluded from his survey and his construction of culture (Moulettes, 2007)? 3.6 Validity of the Surveys The validity of the surveys can be questioned. Hofstede used questionnaires as his methods of survey and sent them to different countries. Hofstede cannot guarantee that the person who filled the questionnaires is actually his target respondents. For example, the target respondents might be busy or reluctant to fill the questionnaires and may instead delegate the task to their subordinates. Questionnaires were also mainly about the workplace and therefore, cannot be related to define a national culture (McSweeney, 2002, a). There are many factors that may have affected the respondents and the way they complete the questionnaires which have not been taken into consideration. Also, that the respondents had not been told about the purpose of the questionnaire and hence they might not have been able to fill the questionnaire with the seriousness or the attitude required or expected and assumed by Hofstede. 4. Conclusion This paper has provided a critical evaluation of Geerts Hofstedes ground-breaking work on cross-cultural differences. In the field of international business, cross-cultural conflict can result in includes international business activities, business management failure and stalled business negotiations. Understanding diverse cultural values is an essential success factors in international business activities. Cultural values and differences are a pivotal issue in international business for all stakeholders. Influenced by politics, society economics and technology, cultural values are constantly evolving, and therefore it is logical that cultural theories should be updated and re-evaluated over time. Now to conclude and come up with an answer to HofstedeÂÂ ´s model is dated and biased and, as such, is of no use to the contemporary international business executive. How far do you agree? We cannot say that Hofstedes model is completely ineffective as we cannot quantify the matte r. Nevertheless, he should be appreciated for his contribution work in this field. HofstedeÂÂ ´s model might be valid in past decades when the world was less globalized. International business executives may use the model to investigate cultural differences and how different cultures impact on international business. Hofstedes research results represent a reasonable starting point, however it is outdated and biased for the current international business scenario. As such, we should utilize the model with caution, since these results are not very accurate. International managers should not fully depend on the model for the simple reason that Hofstede uses a mere generalization, and huge multinationals cannot go into a market just on the basis of a simplification. He also claimed that his research on IBMÂÂ ´s employees can be used as a benchmark for all kinds of people around the world, without considering other companies, societal clubs, etc.. Moreover, he thinks that his proposal is still up to date due to the fact that he did not work on it if even countries later separated. The world today is now converging to have a global culture. In the near future, Hofstedes model may be of no use at all. In conclusion, HofstedeÂÂ ´s cultural model is dated and biased. 5. Recommendations Study of culture should not be based on national territory but it should be on regions. As we discussed there are many sub-cultures within a national culture. As the world is globalizing rapidly, it is essential to have a cultural model that is constantly updated to reflect these changes caused by globalization. The survey should also involve people from diverse range of social and employment classes so as to be more representative of a culture. China, an emerging economic super power, has not been considered by HofstedeÂÂ ´s five dimensions. Therefore we would recommend that the Chinese market needs to be considered in future research more thoroughly. Appendix 1 HofstedeÂÂ ´s: Individualism vs. Collectivism (as cited in Brewster et. al., 2007) Appendix 2 HofstedeÂÂ ´s: Power Distance (as cited in Brewster et. al., 2007) Appendix 3 HofstedeÂÂ ´s: Uncertainty Avoidance (as cited in Brewster et. al., 2007) Appendix 4 HofstedeÂÂ ´s: Masculinity vs. Femininity (as cited in Brewster et. al., 2007)